During World War I Eastern European Jewry found themselves on either side of the front, since their homeland had become a theatre of war. As Russian Army leaders regarded the Jews as traitors and spies, they made them scapegoats for their own military failures. The hope that the situation would improve under the Central Powers was only partially fulfilled. Although Jews were no longer charged en masse with espionage, the distrust continued as Jews were still associated with treason, epidemics and prostitution. The war confirmed the anti-Semitic stereotypes of many – with tragic consequences for the future.